Nearly all of Massachusetts was once covered by glaciers. These glaciers rounded off mountains, changed the course of streams, and left hundreds of ponds and lakes. Glacial deposits in the form of clay, stones, and boulders cover most of the state.

Within Massachusetts are two distinct physiographic provinces. Most of the state is dominated by the New England Appalachians, an ancient mountain system that runs on a north-south axis. In Massachusetts the New England region is subdivided into the Taconic section, the Berkshire Massif, the New England Upland, the Connecticut Valley Lowland, and the Coastal Lowland. Massachusetts’s other natural region is the Atlantic Coastal Plain, and it is divided into two coastal ecologies. Jagged, forested coastlines with coves and bays shaped by glaciers define the Northeast Coast. Meanwhile, the Middle Atlantic Coast of sandy beaches, grass-covered dunes, and marshes reaches as far north as Cape Cod and the islands of Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket.

The Taconic section, sometimes called the Taconic Hills or Taconic Range, occupies the extreme western part of the state and is one of its most rugged sections. The Taconics have an average height of about 2,000 ft. The mountains extend generally from northeast to southwest, with narrow valleys between. The Taconic section also includes the Berkshire Valley, a narrow, generally level valley just east of the highlands. Mount Greylock, at 3,495 ft, is the highest peak in the state.

The Berkshire Massif extends through Massachusetts into Connecticut, and it is most commonly referred to as the Berkshire Hills. These highlands make up a small region that is about 25 mi wide in the northwestern part of the state, east of the Taconic section. The mountains are heavily forested and reach a height of about 2,500 ft.

The New England Upland lies to the east of the Taconic section and the Berkshire Hills. The region is mostly hilly, with an average elevation of about 1,000 ft. The upland generally slopes downward very gradually to the east. Throughout the upland are occasional monadnocks, or isolated mountains. The Connecticut Valley Lowland cuts north and south across the west central part of the region. This river valley ranges from about 5 to 20 mi wide, and in Massachusetts it is generally level. Alluvial deposits from the Connecticut River and clays from an ancient glacial lake help make this a fertile agricultural region. Occasional ridges, such as Mount Tom (1,202 ft), near Holyoke, are ancient lava flows that have been tilted and then eroded.

The Coastal Plain makes up most of the eastern third of the state. This region is a level or gently rolling section that rises gradually to a height of about 150 m (about 500 ft) in the east central part of the state. The Coastal Plain has many ponds, swamps, and small rivers. There are a few rather low monadnocks throughout this region. In addition, small hills, called drumlins, which were formed by the glaciers, are found throughout the region. Perhaps the most famous of these drumlins are Breed’s Hill and Bunker Hill, where an early battle of the American Revolution took place.

The embayed section of the Coastal Plain in Massachusetts includes Cape Cod, the islands of Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket, the Elizabeth Islands, and other smaller islands. This section is mostly level or rolling, although some hills formed by the glaciers rise to about 300 ft. Sand dunes, ponds, and marshes are common in this region.

The largest river in Massachusetts is the Connecticut, which flows for 66 mi from north to south across the west central part of the state. The main tributaries of the Connecticut in the state are the Deerfield, Westfield, Millers, and Chicopee rivers.

The Charles River is the longest river wholly within Massachusetts. Rising near the state border with Rhode Island, the river follows a winding northeastern course of 47 mi, flowing into Boston Bay between downtown Boston and the Charlestown section. The Charles River joins the Mystic River, flowing from the north, to form inner Boston Harbor.

The Merrimack River, in the northeast, is the second largest river, crossing at least part of the state. It enters the state from New Hampshire northwest of Lowell and flows through Massachusetts before emptying into the Atlantic at Newburyport. The main tributary of the Merrimack in Massachusetts is the Concord. Other smaller but important rivers in the state are the Housatonic, Blackstone, Nashua, Ipswich, and Taunton.

There are more than 1,100 lakes and ponds in Massachusetts. By far the largest is Quabbin Reservoir, in the central part of the state, with an area of 39 sq mi. Other large artificial lakes include Wachusett Reservoir, East Brimfield Reservoir, and Cobble Mountain Reservoir. Assawompsett Pond, covering about 4 sq mi, is the largest natural lake. North Watuppa Pond and Long Pond are other large natural lakes. Lake Chaubunagungamaug, near Webster, is usually called Webster Lake, because the Algonquian name is difficult to pronounce and spell. The full version of the Native American name is said to be the longest place-name in North America.

The state’s coast is 192 mi long. The coastline is very irregular, however, and if all the small bays and islands are taken into account, its total length is 1,519 mi. The largest bays are Massachusetts Bay, north of Boston; Cape Cod Bay; and Buzzards Bay, an inlet west of Cape Cod that is connected to Cape Cod Bay by a canal.

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